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which was more didactic and subject oriented, has evolved into a more integrated approach. It incorporates teaching from different disciplines such as physiology, pharmacology, medicinal chemistry and clinical pharmacy. In order to strengthen problem-solving skills among the students, the implementation of problem-based learning, computer-aided learning, hospital clerkship, community and industrial attachments and self-directed learning has raised the competency and self-confidence among the pharmacy undergraduate students. At present, the pharmacy courses in Malaysia are aligned with the outcome-based education approach, which emphasises knowledgeable, competent, ethical and internationally accepted pharmacy graduates. In Japan a new curriculum will be finalised in 2013 and begin in 2015. These revisions were needed as the curriculum was overcrowded and was too focussed on basic science. Clinical education will be emphasised, a separate introductory programme developed and the curriculum will be more integrated.

In Zimbabwe, due to the shortage of senior academic researchers and funding, the pharmacy curriculum has not been extensively reviewed for the past 12 years. The past two consecutive inspection reports by the regulatory Pharmacists Council of Zimbabwe has strongly recommended the review of the pharmacy curriculum in order to modernise pharmacy training in line with global trends and to prepare pharmacy graduates for practice in the 21st century. Work is under way in the country to introduce an undergraduate degree in pharmaceutical sciences majoring in emerging technologies.

Jordan has introduced the Virtual Pharmacy concept where students can practice patient education, dispensing prescriptions, as well as meet and learn from real-life cases, and role playing in a community pharmacy environment. The large chain pharmacies in Jordan have sponsored the virtual pharmacies in universities and also provide student placements. In Chile all universities are looking to develop curricula based on competencies taking into account international experiences (e.g. FIP, Pan-American Conference on Pharmaceutical Education and Tuning Educational Structures).

4.3.6 Inter- professional education

Developing Countries

In Namibia a number of areas besides the didactic educational modalities are being planned in concert with broader health professions. The rural placements that pharmacy students undertake as part of their studies are based in the public sector, linking students with a hospital from which they move out into the rural community in hard-to-reach parts of the country. They are also part of a multi-disciplinary team including fellow medical students and pharmacists assistants.

Developed Countries

In the US significant efforts to make inter-professional education part of the curriculum are being advanced. Health care in the US is moving towards a patient-centred, team-based care model and medication use management is now recognised as an essential component of the model by progressive health delivery systems. Pharmacists are the medicines specialists and those educated clinically are especially in demand. Accreditation of US pharmacy education strongly encourages inter-professional education across the PharmD curriculum and many colleges and schools of pharmacy are the primary champions on their campus for inter- professional education.

4.3.7 Unique challenges

Currently, Namibia has approximately 200 pharmacists registered and the intention is to double that number within 10 years of the new BPharm programme. With such a small population (circa 2 million) it is possible to educate enough pharmacists in a relatively short period of time without flooding the market to resolve the current shortage. However, in a country where there has been no previous pharmacist education, the attrition rate has been predictably high (2011 2013: 42%) as students may also repeat years or transfer to other professional programmes such as medicine. The concern for the practicing sector is that the pharmacists who graduate will not be sufficient to meet the nation s needs and has resulted in an increased intake of approximately 27% year on year.

4.3.8 Postgraduate courses and certification for specialist roles

Many countries have developed postgraduate courses like Masters courses in clinical or community pharmacy or more specialist qualifications for certain roles, for example, the board certification in therapeutics, certificates in independent prescribing, vaccination, management of TB and business management.

Switzerland has implemented a number of postgraduate certificates beside 3 comprehensive postgraduate specialisation titles. This allows a certain necessary flexibility in the curricula in Switzerland. There are postgraduate (specialisation) titles in community pharmacy, hospital pharmacy and six postgraduate certificates with structured curricula over two-six years depending on the specialisation. A postgraduate certificate is a method to provide a high quality education in a new and specific area. The objective is to integrate the contents of this new certificate into the postgraduate specialisation curriculum of the FPH title.