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Further along the road, the contents should be implemented into the university curriculum in order to prepare the new generation for new professional challenges. As early as 1994, pharmaSuisse provided the specialisation for community pharmacists , a structured two year postgraduate course for experienced pharmacists. In 2001, the postgraduate FPH title was created making postgraduate education accessible to all pharmacists and initiating compulsory continuing education as required by law and by the statutes of pharmaSuisse.

Recognising that the five years required for the pre-graduate course are not sufficient to cover all competencies required for pharmacists who will work in various fields of activity, the Portuguese Pharmaceutical Society has established a compulsory continuing education system, with the need to attain a certain number of credits every five years in order to renew the professional license. Nowadays, several faculties of pharmacy and other organisations such as the National Association of Pharmacies and the Pharmaceutical Society offer a wide variety of post-graduate courses and short- and medium-length courses on an array of topics, which range from scientific refresher courses to the acquisition of competencies such as immunisation.

In Jordan, a pharmacy chain and the Jordan University of Science and Technology (JUST) have recently collaborated to develop a Retail Pharmacy Management Diploma .

The University of Namibia are planning a Master of Pharmacy work-based programme that will be adaptable to both public and private sectors to ensure continuing education and training, and workforce development. This will give post- graduate students exposure to specific areas of practice including therapeutics information, technical services and clinical pharmacy. Finally, a comprehensive post-graduate programme is being created in conjunction with schools of medicine and nursing to clinically train pharmacists in multidisciplinary teams. This programme will continually evaluate the evidence for this approach to ensure that it is appropriate in meeting patient needs in Namibia. In Zimbabwe, work to introduce a taught Master s course in key areas as law relating to pharmacy, toxicology, and African traditional medicine is highly prioritised in the national strategy for pharmaceutical education. There is a requirement for all pharmacists to gain a specified number of Continuing Professional Development (CPD) training credits as criterion for continued registration and licensing. CPD programmes for pharmacists in the private sector are not well established.

Some schools in the Philippines have continuing options for an additional year or two for clinical pharmacy orientation and residency.

Thailand has developed clinical pharmacy/pharmaceutical care workshops and modules for hospital pharmacists. There will be eight workshops per year and these workshops can form part of the Masters degree in clinical pharmacy at four

faculties. Thailand has also developed a four-year board certification pharmacotherapy training programme for pharmacy residents.

All the institutions of higher learning in Malaysia, which offer pharmacy courses, also offer their own postgraduate programmes. The postgraduate education for Masters and PhD can be divided into three categories, which consist of full time research, coursework, or a mixed mode, which combines research and coursework.

In Saudi Arabia and in the whole Middle East region there are limited opportunities for postgraduate clinical practice qualifications. To meet this need some of the Saudi public universities have established collaborative programmes with some universities in the US to provide training slots to Saudi pharmacy graduates. The Japan Pharmaceutical Association (JPA) launched a new continuing education system: the JPA Lifelong Learning Support System (JPALS) in April 2012. The JPALS is an e-learning system for lifelong learning for pharmacists with a CPD cycle: reflection, planning, action and evaluation. As of the end of March 2013, approximately 20,000 pharmacists used JPALS. To become a fully qualified pharmacist, pharmacists have to obtain at least 40 units within four years of initial training. For revalidation, they have to acquire at least another 30 units over the next three years. There are other specialist fields such as traditional Kanpo medicine and paediatric medication. Other organisations offer qualifications in cancer, infection control and psychiatry.

Most pharmacy schools in the UK offer postgraduate diploma and Masters courses in pharmacy practice, and/ or clinical pharmacy as well as PhD programmes, with some also offering professional doctorates (DPharm). It has been common practice to need at least a postgraduate diploma to progress in a hospital pharmacy career. Universities have also provided certified courses for accrediting pharmacists to provide medicines use review services. Pharmacists who have been qualified for two years can take a university certificate in independent prescribing which is accredited by the GPhC. Many other courses have been developed regionally and locally to qualify community pharmacists to provide National Health Service funded services, for example minor ailments services, smoking cessation, sexual health and health promotion.

4.4 Conclusion

These 14 case studies give a flavour of some of the transformation that is occurring in pharmacy education globally. There is a shift to patient centred, team based practice and to clinically focussed, integrated curricula with plenty of opportunities for patient and practice centred learning. There remains a shortage of pharmacist academics and of clinical preceptors. Universities and policy makers